Knowledge Base
What is Bacterial Cellulose?
Production process, properties and applications of bacterial cellulose (BC), the pure biopolymer that can replace fossil plastics.
Bacterial cellulose is a pure biopolymer produced by bacteria of the genus Komagataeibacter through sugar fermentation. The material is chemically identical to plant cellulose (β-1→4-glucan), but features a much finer nanofibre network with exceptional purity, mechanical strength and moisture retention. This makes it a versatile, sustainable alternative to fossil-based plastics in sectors such as healthcare, packaging and cosmetics.
Background
What is Cellulose?
Cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer on earth and serves as the primary building block of plant cell walls. It consists of long chains of glucose (β-1→4-linked glucan) and gives plants their structure and rigidity. You can find cellulose in trees (spruce, pine, eucalyptus), cotton, hemp, bamboo and even vegetables like cabbage or broccoli.
In the paper industry, this material is commonly known as wood pulp or paper fibre. Since the 19th century, cellulose has been extracted from wood on an industrial scale for paper and cardboard. Before that, cotton and linen were the primary sources due to their high cellulose content.
However, cellulose is not exclusively plant-derived. Certain bacteria, particularly from the genus Komagataeibacter, also produce cellulose through fermentation. They convert sugars into extremely fine nanofibres. This material is called bacterial cellulose (BC) and is chemically identical to plant cellulose, but far purer (virtually free of lignin or hemicellulose) and forms a dense, strong network.
Cellulose also plays a significant role in everyday life. You can find it as a thickener in toothpaste and adhesives, as food additive E460 (microcrystalline cellulose), and as a stabiliser in creams and cosmetics.
The Material
What is Bacterial Cellulose?
Bacterial cellulose (BC) is cellulose secreted by bacteria outside their cell wall, growing as a gel-like pellicle layer. Its chemical structure (β-1→4-glucan) is identical to plant cellulose, but its nanoscale structure is unique. BC is extremely pure, highly crystalline and has an exceptionally fine fibre network that forms the basis for countless innovative applications.
>99%
Purity
Virtually free of lignin, hemicellulose or pectin. This makes BC suitable for medical and food-contact applications without additional purification steps.
200+ MPa
Tensile Strength
High mechanical strength and toughness compared to many plant-based fibres. The nanofibres form a dense, interwoven network that is remarkably strong.
100x
Water Holding
BC can retain up to one hundred times its own weight in water thanks to its porous nanofibre network, making it ideal for wound dressings and hydrogels.
99.9%
Reproducibility
Controlled fermentation delivers consistently reproducible properties. Every batch meets the same specifications, essential for medical and industrial applications.
For Plastilose, BC is a platform material for innovative, plastic-free products: from medical cups and beakers to functional packaging and high-performance barrier applications.
Production Process
How is Bacterial Cellulose Made?
Bacterial cellulose is produced through a controlled fermentation process. Bacteria of the genus Komagataeibacter convert sugar-rich substrates into a dense network of cellulose nanofibres. The entire process takes place at room temperature, without harsh chemicals, resulting in a material with exceptional properties.
Substrate Preparation
Sugar-rich waste streams from the agro-industry are supplemented with nitrogen and minerals to create an optimal growth medium for the bacteria.
Fermentation
Komagataeibacter bacteria are inoculated onto the substrate. Over 7 to 14 days, they form a pellicle, a floating sheet of cellulose nanofibres at the liquid surface.
Purification
The harvested pellicle is treated with a mild NaOH solution to remove bacterial residues, followed by repeated rinsing with water until a pure, biocompatible material remains.
Shaping
The purified material is dried, pressed or moulded into the desired form, from thin films and sheets to 3D-shaped products such as medical cups.
The entire process uses no harsh chemicals or high temperatures, making BC one of the most environmentally friendly biopolymers available. At Plastilose, we continuously optimise this process for scalability and cost efficiency.
Comparison
BC versus Other Materials
How does bacterial cellulose compare to plant cellulose, polypropylene (PP) plastic and coated paper? This comparison shows why BC occupies a unique position as a sustainable material.
| Property | Bacterial Cellulose | Plant Cellulose | PP Plastic | Paper + Coating |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Purity | ✓ >99% | 60-90% (contains lignin) | N/A | Variable |
| Fibre diameter | 20-100 nm (nanofibres) | 10-50 µm (microfibres) | N/A | 10-50 µm |
| Tensile strength | ✓ 200-300 MPa | 40-120 MPa | 30-40 MPa | 20-50 MPa |
| Biodegradable | ✓ Yes | ✓ Yes | ✗ No | ~ Partially |
| PFAS-free | ✓ Yes | ✓ Yes | ✗ Often not | ✗ Often not |
| Moisture barrier | ✓ Good | ✗ Weak | ✓ Good | ~ Moderate |
| Biocompatible | ✓ Yes (ISO 10993) | ~ Limited | ✗ No | ✗ No |
| Renewable feedstock | ✓ Sugar waste streams | ✓ Wood/cotton | ✗ Fossil | ~ Wood + fossil |
Applications
Applications of Bacterial Cellulose
Bacterial cellulose is being deployed across a growing number of sectors. From medical devices to sustainable packaging, its unique combination of strength, purity and biodegradability opens doors that remain closed for other materials.
Medical
Wound dressings, tissue engineering scaffolds and medical cups. The biocompatibility of BC (ISO 10993 approved) makes it ideal for prolonged skin contact.
View medication cups →Packaging
Compostable straws, cups, films and barrier layers. BC offers a moisture barrier comparable to plastic, while being fully biodegradable and PFAS-free.
Future of packaging →Cosmetics
Face masks, hydrating carriers and stabilisers in creams. The exceptional water-holding capacity of BC makes it a premium ingredient in skincare products.
Food
Thickener, fibre component and texture enhancer. Cellulose (E-number E460) is already widely used as an anti-caking agent and filler, though E460 is typically plant-derived, not bacterial.
Insulation
BC films, foams and aerogels exhibit promising thermal and acoustic insulation properties thanks to the porous nano-network and low density of the material.
Textiles & Filtration
Sustainable textile fibres and high-performance filtration systems. The fine nanofibre network of BC provides excellent filtration properties for water and air purification.
Safety
Safety & Regulation
Bacterial cellulose has been extensively tested for safety for both humans and the environment. The material is recognised by the U.S. FDA as "Generally Recognized as Safe" (GRAS) for food contact, a status it has held since 1992. In Europe, BC falls under the Novel Food Regulation, with several application dossiers currently under review.
"Bacterial cellulose is recognised as safe for human contact. Toxicological studies show no cytotoxicity, no mutagenicity and no skin irritation, even with prolonged exposure."
- FDA GRAS status for food contact (since 1992)
- ISO 10993 biocompatibility testing successfully passed
- No cytotoxicity, no mutagenicity, no skin irritation
- NOAEL above 5,000 mg/kg body weight per day
- EU Novel Food regulation in development
- Completely free of PFAS, microplastics and heavy metals
For medical applications, BC meets the requirements of ISO 10993 (biological evaluation of medical devices). This includes testing for cytotoxicity, sensitisation, irritation and systemic toxicity. At Plastilose, all our products are independently tested by accredited laboratories.
Market & Future
The Future of Bacterial Cellulose
The global market for bacterial cellulose is growing rapidly, driven by increasing demand for sustainable materials and the European Green Deal ambitions. BC offers a promising alternative to fossil plastics in sectors where purity, safety and biodegradability are essential.
$1.2B
Expected Market Size
Global BC market by 2030 (CAGR ~15%)
15+
Application Areas
From medical to textiles, packaging to electronics
100%
Circular Potential
Bio-based, biodegradable, zero microplastics
At Plastilose, based at BlueCity Rotterdam, we are developing PFAS- and microplastic-free solutions for healthcare and food packaging. Our focus is on scaling BC production so that sustainable materials are no longer a premium product, but the standard.
The European Commission is driving the transition to bio-based materials through the Circular Economy Action Plan and the strengthened Packaging and Packaging Waste Regulation (PPWR). BC fits this framework perfectly: it is renewable, safe and fully compostable.
FAQ
Frequently Asked Questions
Bacterial cellulose (BC) is cellulose produced by bacteria such as Komagataeibacter through fermentation. It is chemically identical to plant cellulose (β-1→4-glucan), but is far purer and forms a fine nanofibre network with strong mechanical properties and high water retention. BC is used as a sustainable alternative to plastic in healthcare, packaging and more.
BC is produced through fermentation. Bacteria are inoculated onto a sugar-rich growth medium and form a pellicle, a sheet of cellulose nanofibres at the liquid surface, over 7 to 14 days. After harvesting, the material is purified with a mild NaOH solution and rinsed. The entire process takes place at room temperature without harsh chemicals.
Chemically they are identical, but structurally they differ significantly. BC has nanofibres (20-100 nm) versus microfibres (10-50 µm) in plant cellulose. BC is also far purer (>99% versus 60-90%) because it contains no lignin or hemicellulose. This results in higher tensile strength, better moisture retention and direct suitability for medical and food contact.
Yes. BC holds GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) status from the FDA for food contact, a recognition it has had since 1992. Toxicological studies show no cytotoxicity, mutagenicity or irritation. In the EU, BC falls under the Novel Food Regulation. The material contains no PFAS, microplastics or heavy metals.
BC is widely used: medical devices (wound dressings, medication cups), sustainable packaging (compostable cups, films, barrier layers), cosmetics (face masks, hydrating carriers), food (thickener, texture enhancer), insulation materials and filtration systems. Plastilose focuses primarily on healthcare and food packaging.
Yes, fully. BC is bio-based (fermented from renewable sugars) and biodegradable without leaving microplastics or PFAS residues behind. Depending on conditions, BC degrades within a few weeks to months. It therefore fits perfectly into circular production chains and meets European waste reduction ambitions.
For many applications, yes. BC offers comparable mechanical strength and moisture barrier properties to polypropylene, but is biodegradable and PFAS-free. Particularly in healthcare (disposable cups, packaging) and food packaging, BC is a direct alternative. For other applications, such as structural components, the properties are not yet sufficient. The focus is on single-use products where BC makes the greatest difference.
Komagataeibacter (formerly Gluconacetobacter) is the bacterial genus most commonly used for BC production. These gram-negative bacteria secrete cellulose through pores in their cell wall and form a dense nanofibre network at the air-liquid interface. Different strains produce BC with subtly different properties, enabling optimisation for specific applications.
BC has a tensile strength of 200 to 300 MPa, significantly higher than plant cellulose (40-120 MPa) and polypropylene plastic (30-40 MPa). The high crystallinity (60-90%) and dense nanofibre network give BC a unique combination of strength and flexibility. This makes it suitable for applications where durability and performance must go hand in hand.
Visit our knowledge base for more articles about BC and sustainable materials. For scientific background, we refer to the sources at the bottom of this page. Want to experience BC yourself? Get in touch for a sample or a conversation with our team.
Sources & References
View all sources
Review Articles
- Wikipedia. Bacterial cellulose. Overview of taxonomy, properties and applications. Read more
- WUR. Cellulose Dossier. Overview of plant cellulose and applications in the Netherlands. Read more
Material Characterisation
- Carbohydrate Polymers (ScienceDirect). Reviews on BC properties, crystallinity and mechanical strength. DOI
- Wiley. Bacterial cellulose: structure & applications. Purity, crystallinity and nanostructure of BC. DOI
Biocompatibility & Safety
- Springer. Applications & biocompatibility of bacterial cellulose in medical devices. DOI
- FDA. GRAS Notice for Bacterial Cellulose. Safety assessment for food contact, originally filed 1992.
- ISO 10993-1:2018. Biological evaluation of medical devices. International framework for biocompatibility testing.
Sustainability & Market
- Grand View Research. Bacterial Cellulose Market Size Report, 2023-2030. Market analysis and growth forecasts.
- European Commission. Circular Economy Action Plan. Framework for sustainable materials and packaging in the EU.
- European Commission. Packaging and Packaging Waste Regulation (PPWR). New packaging regulation with biodegradability requirements.
Want to learn more about bacterial cellulose?
Get in touch with our team for a sample, technical specifications or a no-obligation conversation about the possibilities of BC for your organisation.